In this article, we suggest you consider one of the main techniques that include research methods in psychology. Observation involves purposeful and deliberate perception of the object of study. In the social sciences, its application is the most difficult, since the subject and object of research is a person, which means that the subjective assessments of the observer, his attitude and attitudes can be introduced into the results.
Observation is one of the main empirical methods, the simplest and most common in natural conditions. In order for its results to be accurate, the observer should remain aloof, be unnoticed, or become part of the group that includes the object of observation, mix with it so as not to attract attention. The researcher must record and evaluate events related to the purpose of observation.
Elements of this technique include theoretical thinking (variousmethods, results control, comprehension) and quantitative analysis (factor analysis, scaling, etc.).
Studying the basic methods of psychology, observation should certainly be noted and, if possible, applied. After all, this is one of the main techniques used by modern science.
It must be said that observation in psychology is necessarily somewhat subjective. The degree of subjectivity can be reduced by the rejection of quick conclusions and generalizations, the repetition of observation, and the use of other methods along with it. It is better that several observers participate in the study at once. To increase the effectiveness of this method, various observation maps and questionnaires are often used. They allow you to focus on the most important points and not be distracted by the unimportant.
Distinguishing features of surveillance
Observation in psychology is always carried out with a specific purpose, according to a predetermined plan, equipped with various items necessary to fix the results and carry out the process itself.
This method allows you to collect empirical data, form ideas about the objects of study, and test various conjectures and theories associated with it.
Observation provides knowledge through direct contact, based on the indications of the senses, therefore it is the first scientific method in history.
Methods of psychology (observation, experiment, etc.) have their own characteristics. These features make it possible to distinguish them as a separatetype of research. Observation in psychology is distinguished by the type of relationship to the object (for example, in a conversation or experiment, a specialist creates special conditions that cause this or that phenomenon), the presence of direct contact with it (which is absent when studying the products of activity, and is also not always present in the experiment).
From a methodological point of view, it is inherent in universality, that is, the possibility of using observation in relation to a wide range of different mental phenomena, as well as flexibility (the ability to change the "field of coverage" of an object or hypothesis in the process of research) and minimal requirements for technical, the hardware of the procedure. In this, the methods of psychology, observation, experiment and others are very different.
In the scientific literature, the terms "observation", "objective observation" and "external use" are often used interchangeably. Mental life is a complex phenomenon, inaccessible to direct view from the outside, hidden from prying eyes. Therefore, initially the only method of psychology was introspection (self-observation), and only with the development of science did external observation begin to be used when observing a person (psychology, sociology and other sciences).
In domestic psychology, the basic principles of observation are described in the works of such scientists as S. L. Rubinshtein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev.
Types of objects
Observation and experiment in psychology, as well as other methods, can havethe following objects of study:
- person (or animal);
- a whole group of people.
The object of observation can, as a rule, be only the external component of activity (movement, movement, contact, joint actions, speech acts, facial expressions, external manifestations of vegetative reactions, as well as various situations, both spontaneous and organized).
Observation rules
There are a number of rules when applying this method:
1. Systematic, repeated studies should be conducted, in changing and recurring situations, to highlight patterns and coincidences.
2. Don't jump to conclusions, be sure to make alternative assumptions about what is behind this or that behavior and test them.
3. Particular situations and conditions must be compared with general ones, considering them in the context of various communities (personality as a whole, general situation, stage of mental development, for example, in relation to a child, etc.), since such consideration often completely changes the psychological meaning of the observed.
In order to minimize the inaccuracies and errors of the study, to ensure its objectivity, as already noted, it is necessary that the researcher does not betray his presence. It is necessary to make sure that the observer can see, while remaining unnoticed as a researcher. Features of observation in psychology suggest the least possible participation of the subject in it.
It can be achievedas follows:
- "become familiar", that is, make the object of study get used to the presence of the observer - often be present in his field of vision, as if not paying attention to him;
- explain the presence of an outsider with some purpose acceptable for the object of study, for example, to tell a teacher at school that you would like to be present at the lesson in order to master his methodology;
- replace the observer with a technique that registers mental phenomena (a video camera, for example), which will provide accurate fixation and will less confuse the observed;
- carry out the study from a dark room adjacent to the one where the observed are located, for example, separated from it by a special Gesell glass, with one-sided light conduction;
- use hidden camera shooting.
The goal must be clearly defined, because only in very rare cases, random observations lead to important discoveries.
Types of observation
Types of observation in psychology are very diverse. There is no exhaustive unified classification, so we list only the main ones.
1. Systematic and random. Systematic is characterized by regularity, repetition throughout the entire period of study. The time intervals between observations are determined by external conditions, the nature of the object being studied.
2. Open or hidden. These types of observation in psychology characterize the position of the observer to the object of study. For example, in covert observation, the researcher looks through the Gesell glasson the object of study, and when open, the observed also sees the researcher.
As a subspecies, this includes included observation, when the subject himself is a member of a group, a participant in events. Participant observation can be either open or covert (for example, if the researcher does not disclose that he is one to other members of the group).
Some types of observation are, as it were, intermediate between included and non-included observation. For example, when a teacher studies the behavior of students during a lesson: here the researcher is included in the situation, but otherwise than the objects of study, their positions are unequal in relation to managing the situation.
3. Field and laboratory. The field is carried out in natural conditions for the observed, implies the absence of any initiative on the part of the researcher. This observation in psychology allows you to study the natural life of the observed object. Its disadvantages include laboriousness, as well as the uncontrollability of the situation by the researcher, the impossibility of systematic observation. Laboratory provides an opportunity to study an object in a controlled, convenient situation for the researcher, however, it can significantly distort the results of the study.
4. Longitudinal, periodic and single. These types are distinguished by the time of organization of the study. Longitudinal ("longitudinal") is carried out for a long time, often several years, and also involves continuous contact of the observer with the object. The results of such a study are presented in the formdiaries that broadly cover the lifestyle, behavior, various habits of the studied object.
Periodic observation is the most common type of temporary research organization. It is carried out within certain precisely defined intervals of time. Single, or single, observations are carried out in the form of a description of a separate case, which can be both typical and unique in the study of a particular phenomenon or process.
Observation units, their registration
Units of observation - simple or complex actions of the object of study, available to the observer. For their registration, special documents are used:
1. Observation card. It is necessary to register certain signs in a formalized and often coded form. During the course of the study, several of these cards can be used, separately for each unit of study.
2. observation protocol. Designed to record combined results in formalized and non-formalized procedures. It reflects the interaction of observation cards.
3. Diary of observations. Psychology often makes use of various observation logs. They are necessary in order to record the results of the study. They indicate not only various information about the object itself, but also the actions of the observer during the study.
When recording the results, various film and video equipment can also be used.
Surveillance example
Reveal well the method of observation inpsychology examples. Consider a specific example where this technique is used.
For example, a military researcher needs to find out which of the military personnel are prone to various offenses, such as acquisitiveness, drunkenness, violence. The object of observation are the newly arrived soldiers.
First, the researcher collects information about them through the officers of the units to which the research objects belong. This information can be obtained, for example, from those who accompanied newcomers to the place of service from the recruiting station, through conversation, analysis of documents. At the same time, it is necessary to pay special attention to the social environment in which the soldier grew up and was brought up (prosperous or dysfunctional, complete or incomplete family, belonging or not belonging to a group with negative value orientations), to his behavior (whether or not he was involved in criminal or administrative liability)., the presence or absence of negative characteristics from work or study), on his psychological and physiological characteristics (character traits, level of development, etc.).
Next, the researcher marks potentially disadvantaged soldiers by analyzing the information received.
At the same time, the observer determines special signs that allow one to judge the propensity of objects to deviant behavior. It is believed that persons with deviant (deviant) behavior include soldiers whose behavior does not correspond to the moral and legal norms accepted in this society. This may be, for example, dishonest attitude to official duties,disobedience to commanders, insulting colleagues, stubbornness, attempts to dominate, etc.
Based on these signs, the researchers collect detailed information about all the soldiers using mostly random observation, and then draw up a detailed research program.
The student identifies situations, categories and units of observation, prepares tools (protocols, cards, observation diaries).
Example of observation situations
Implement the method of observation in psychology examples of typical situations, among which it is worth noting:
- Study sessions. During such activities, the general level of training, skills, knowledge, the degree of zeal of the soldiers are determined, the level of cohesion of the team as a whole, the degree of its desire to acquire knowledge.
- Breaks, leisure hours. In these situations, the observer may be interested in topics of conversation, leaders and their influence on other participants in the dialogues, different opinions and points of view of soldiers.
- Household work. Here, the attitude to the work of the studied, various relationships between the military in the performance of household work, as well as leaders and subordinates, may be of interest. It is important to note that in the presence of large volumes of work, as well as in critical situations (during an earthquake, fire, flood), such qualities as endurance, purposefulness, cohesion, mutual assistance of team members are especially manifested.
- Changing of the guard, divorce and service. In these situations, the degree of military training, the level of skills and abilities, motivation forfulfilling duties, persuading soldiers.
- Evening verification. Here you can pay attention to the general discipline, the reaction of the military to official duties and their distribution.
A special role is played by various conflict situations in which the relationship between soldiers and their behavior are most clearly manifested. It is important to note the instigators, as well as to indicate the causes, dynamics and outcome of the conflict, to determine the roles of various participants.
Observation in Educational Psychology
This type of research is used mainly in studying the behavior of students and teachers, the style of their activities. Here it is important to observe two basic conditions: the observed should not know what is the object of research; the researcher must not interfere with the activities of the observed.
Observation in social psychology should be carried out according to a pre-designed program. It is necessary to fix only those manifestations of the activity of objects that correspond to the tasks and goals of the study. It is best to use video filming, as it allows you to study phenomena repeatedly and ensures the maximum reliability of the conclusions.
In educational psychology, non-participant observation is mainly used, but sometimes it can also be included, allowing the researcher to experience firsthand what experiences the observed are experiencing. However, one should especially strive to maintain objectivity.
Observation in Developmental Psychology
Here it can be either continuous or selective. If the observation covers many aspects of the observed behavior at the same time, for a long time, and is carried out in relation to either one or several children, it is called continuous. At the same time, some selectivity is often noted: the selection criterion is novelty. When performing selective observation, only one specific side of the behavior of the child being studied is indicated and evaluated, or his behavior in separate, specific situations, at certain intervals of time (the following examples implement such an observation in psychology: C. Darwin observed the manifestation of his son’s emotions, and the domestic linguist A. N. Gvozdev recorded the speech of his child during the first eight years of his life).
The value of this technique in developmental psychology lies in the fact that there are no age restrictions for the object under study to apply this method. Tracking the life of the observed over a long time allows you to find turning points, critical periods in its development.
The observation in psychology, examples of which we have just indicated, is here most often used to collect data at the initial stage of research. But sometimes it is also used as the main method.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to note once again that it is possible to fix and observe only the external results of a person's mental activity and their manifestations. However, a number of important psychological components that explain behavior remain outwardly unrecognized.manifest, and therefore cannot be fixed by observation. So, for example, it is impossible to trace mental activity, various hidden emotional experiences and states.
Therefore, even where the method of observation is the main, leading, a number of other methods are used along with it, such as polling, conversation, and other additional methods. Observation and experiment in psychology are also often used together.
