Sociological research is a kind of system of organizational and technical procedures, thanks to which one can obtain scientific knowledge about social phenomena. It is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that are collected in the methods of sociological research.
Types of studies
Before considering the main methods of sociological research, it is worth exploring their varieties. Basically, studies are divided into three large groups: by goals, by duration and depth of analysis.
According to the goals, sociological research is divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental determine and study social trends and patterns of social development. The results of these studies help solve complex problems. In turn, applied studies study specific objects and solve certain problems, which are not of a global nature.
All methods of sociological research differ from each other in their duration. So, there are:
- Long-termstudies that last more than 3 years.
- Mid-term validity from six months to 3 years.
- Short term lasts 2 to 6 months.
- Express studies are carried out very quickly - from 1 week to 2 months maximum.
Research is also distinguished by its depth, while being divided into search, descriptive and analytical.
Exploratory research is considered the simplest, they are used when the subject of research has not yet been studied. They have a simplified toolkit and program, most often used in the preliminary stages of larger studies to set guidelines on what and where to collect information.
Due to descriptive research, scientists gain a holistic view of the phenomena under study. They are conducted based on the full program of the chosen sociological research method, using detailed tools and a large number of people to conduct surveys.
Analytical studies describe social phenomena and their causes.
About methodology and methods
In directories, such a concept as methodology and methods of sociological research is often found. For those who are far from science, it is worth explaining one fundamental difference between them. Methods are methods of using organizational and technical procedures designed to collect sociological information. Methodology is the totality of all possible research methods. In this way,methodology and methods of sociological research can be considered related concepts, but by no means identical.
All methods that are known in sociology can be divided into two large groups: methods that are designed to collect melons, and those that are responsible for processing them.
In turn, the methods of sociological research responsible for collecting data are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Qualitative methods help the scientist understand the essence of the phenomenon that has occurred, while quantitative methods show how massively it has spread.
The family of quantitative methods of sociological research includes:
- Poll.
- Content analysis of documents.
- Interview.
- Observation.
- Experiment.
Qualitative methods of sociological research are focus groups, case studies. Also included are unstructured interviews and ethnographic research.
As for the methods of analysis of sociological research, they include all kinds of statistical methods, such as ranking or scaling. To be able to apply statistics, sociologists use special software such as OCA or SPSS.
Poll
The first and main method of sociological research is a social survey. A survey is a method of collecting information about an object under study during a survey or interview.
With the help of a survey, you can get information thatnot always displayed in documentary sources or impossible to notice during the experiment. A survey is resorted to in the case when the necessary and only source of information is a person. Verbal information obtained through this method is considered more reliable than any other. It is easier to analyze and quantify.
Another advantage of this method is that it is universal. During the interview, the interviewer records the motives and results of the individual's activities. This allows you to get the information that is not able to give any of the methods of sociological research. In sociology, such a concept as the reliability of information is of great importance - this is when the respondent gives the same answers to the same questions. However, under different circumstances, a person can answer in different ways, so how the interviewer knows how to take into account all conditions and influence them is of great importance. It is necessary to maintain in a stable state as many factors that affect reliability as possible.
Each sociological survey begins with an adaptation phase, when the respondent receives a certain motivation to answer. This phase consists of a greeting and the first few questions. The content of the questionnaire, its purpose and the rules for completing it are explained to the respondent beforehand. The second stage is the achievement of the goal, that is, the collection of basic information. During the survey, especially if the questionnaire is very long, the respondent's interest in the task may fade. Therefore, the questionnaire often uses questions, the content of whichinteresting to the subject, but may be completely useless for the study.
The last stage of the poll is the completion of the work. At the end of the questionnaire, easy questions are usually written, most often this role is played by the demographic map. This method helps to relieve tension, and the respondent will be more loyal to the interviewer. After all, as practice shows, if you do not take into account the condition of the subject, then the majority of respondents refuse to answer questions already halfway through the questionnaire.
Content analysis of documents
Also sociological research methods include document analysis. In terms of popularity, this technique is second only to opinion polls, but in some areas of research, it is content analysis that is considered the main one.
Content analysis of documents is widespread in the sociology of politics, law, civil movements, and so on. Very often, by examining documents, scientists derive new hypotheses, which are later tested by a survey method.
A document is a tool that allows you to certify information about facts, events or phenomena of objective reality. When using documents, it is worth considering the experience and traditions of a particular field, as well as related humanities. During the analysis, it is worth taking a critical look at the information, this will help to correctly assess its objectivity.
Documents are classified according to different criteria. Depending on the ways of fixing information, they are divided into written, phonetic, iconographic. If we take into account the authorship, thendocuments are official and personal origin. Motives also influence the creation of documents. Thus, provoked and unprovoked materials are distinguished.
Content analysis is the exact study of the content of a text array in order to determine or measure the social trends described in these arrays. This is a specific method of scientific and cognitive activity and sociological research. It is best used when there is a large amount of unorganized material; when the text cannot be examined without total scores, or when a high level of accuracy is needed.
For example, literary critics have been trying for a very long time to establish which of the finals of the "Mermaid" belongs to Pushkin. With the help of content analysis and special computing programs, it was possible to establish that only one of them belongs to the author. Scientists made this conclusion, basing their opinion on the fact that each writer has his own style. The so-called frequency dictionary, that is, the specific repetition of various words. Having compiled the writer's dictionary and comparing it with the frequency dictionary of all possible endings, we found out that it was the original version of "Mermaid" that was identical to Pushkin's frequency dictionary.
The main thing in content analysis is to correctly define semantic units. They can be words, phrases and sentences. Analyzing documents in this way, a sociologist can easily understand the main trends, changes and predict further development in a particular social segment.
Interview
Another sociological methodresearch is an interview. It means personal communication between the sociologist and the respondent. The interviewer asks questions and records the answers. The interview can be direct, that is, face to face, or indirect, such as by phone, mail, online, etc.
According to the degree of freedom, interviews are:
- Formalized. In this case, the sociologist always clearly follows the research program. In sociological research methods, this method is often used in indirect surveys.
- Semi-formalized. Here, the order of the questions and their wording may change depending on how the conversation is going.
- Unformalized. Interviews can be conducted without questionnaires, depending on the course of the conversation, the sociologist chooses questions himself. This method is used in pilot or expert interviews when it is not necessary to compare the results of the work done.
Depending on who is the carrier of information, polls are:
- Massive. Here the main sources of information are representatives of various social groups.
- Specialized. When only persons who are knowledgeable in a particular survey are interviewed, which allows you to get completely authoritative answers. This survey is often referred to as the expert interview.
In short, the method of sociological research (in a particular case, interviews) is a very flexible tool for collecting primary information. Interviews are indispensable if you need to study the phenomenawhich cannot be observed from the side.
Observation in sociology
This is a method of purposefully fixing information about the object of perception. In sociology, scientific and ordinary observation are distinguished. The characteristic features of scientific research are purposefulness and regularity. Scientific observation is subject to certain goals and is carried out according to a pre-prepared plan. The researcher records the results of the observation and controls their stability. There are three main features of surveillance:
- The method of sociological research assumes that the knowledge of social reality is closely related to the personal preferences of the scientist and his value orientations.
- The sociologist emotionally perceives the object of observation.
- Difficult to repeat the observation, as objects are always affected by various factors that change them.
Thus, when observing, a sociologist faces a number of subjective difficulties, since he interprets what he sees through the prism of his judgments. As for objective problems, here we can say the following: not all social facts can be observed, all observable processes are limited in time. Therefore, this method is used as an additional method for collecting sociological information. Observation is used if you need to deepen your knowledge or when it is impossible to obtain the necessary information by other methods.
The monitoring program consists of the following steps:
- Define goals and objectives.
- Choosing the type of observation that is most accuratemeets the objectives.
- Detection of object and subject.
- Choosing the data capture method.
- Interpretation of received information.
Types of observation
Each specific method of sociological observation is classified according to various criteria. The observation method is no exception. According to the degree of formalization, it is divided into structuralized and non-structuralized. That is, those that are carried out according to a pre-planned plan and spontaneously, when only the object of observation is known.
According to the position of the observer, experiments of this kind are included and not included. In the first case, the sociologist is directly involved in the object under study. For example, contacts with the subject or participates with the studied subjects in one activity. When observation is not included, the scientist simply watches how events unfold and fixes them. According to the place and conditions of observation, there are field and laboratory ones. For the laboratory, candidates are specially selected and some kind of situation is played out, and in the field, the sociologist simply watches how individuals act in their natural environment. Also, observations are systematic, when they are carried out repeatedly in order to measure the dynamics of changes, and random (that is, one-time).
Experiment
For the methods of sociological research, the collection of primary information plays a paramount role. But it is not always possible to observe a certain phenomenon or find respondents who have been in specific social conditions. Therefore, sociologists begin to conductexperiments. This specific method is based on the fact that the researcher and the subject interact in an artificially created environment.
Experiment is used when it is necessary to test hypotheses regarding the causes of certain social phenomena. Researchers compare two phenomena, where one has a hypothetical cause of the change, and the second does not. If, under the influence of certain factors, the subject of the study acts as previously predicted, then the hypothesis is considered proven.
Experiments are exploratory and confirmatory. Research helps to determine the cause of the occurrence of certain phenomena, and confirming ones establish how true these reasons are.
Before conducting an experiment, a sociologist must have all the necessary information about the research problem. First you need to formulate the problem and define key concepts. Next, designate the variables, in particular external ones, which can significantly affect the course of the experiment. Particular attention should be paid to the selection of subjects. That is, take into account the characteristics of the general population, modeling it in a reduced format. Experimental and control subgroups should be equivalent.
During the course of the experiment, the researcher has a direct influence on the experimental subgroup, while the control subgroup does not have any effect. The resulting differences are independent variables, of whichsubsequently, new hypotheses are derived.
Focus group
Among the qualitative methods of sociological research, focus groups have long been in the first place. This method of obtaining information helps to obtain reliable data without requiring lengthy preparation and significant time costs.
To conduct a study, it is necessary to select from 8 to 12 people who previously did not know each other, and appoint a moderator, the one who will conduct a dialogue with those present. All participants in the study should be familiar with the study problem.
A focus group is a discussion of a specific social problem, product, phenomenon, etc. The main task of the moderator is not to let the conversation come to naught. It should encourage participants to express their opinion. To do this, he asks leading questions, quotes or shows videos, asking for comments. At the same time, each of the participants must express their opinion without repeating the remarks that have already been made.
The whole procedure lasts approximately 1-2 hours, is recorded on video, and after the participants leave, the received material is reviewed, data is collected and interpreted.
Case study
Method No. 2 of sociological research in modern science is cases, or special cases. It originated in the Chicago School in the early twentieth century. Literally translated from English, case study means "case analysis". This is a kind of research, where the object is a specific phenomenon, case orhistorical personality. Researchers pay close attention to them in order to be able to predict the processes that may take place in society in the future.
There are three main approaches to this method:
- Nomothetic. A single phenomenon is reduced to a general one, the researcher compares what happened with the norm and concludes how likely the mass distribution of this phenomenon is.
- Ideographic. The singular is considered unique, the so-called exception to the rule, which cannot be repeated in any social environment.
- Integrated. The essence of this method is that during the analysis the phenomenon is considered as unique and as common, this helps to find the features of the pattern.
Ethnographic research
Ethnographic research plays a significant role in the study of society. The main principle is the naturalness of data collection. The essence of the method is simple: the closer the research situation is to everyday life, the more realistic the results will be after collecting the materials.
The task of researchers who work with ethnographic data is to describe in detail the behavior of individuals under certain conditions and give them a meaning.
The ethnographic method is represented by a kind of reflective approach, in the center of which is the researcher himself. He studies materials that are informal and contextual. These can be diaries, notes, stories, newspaper clippings, etc. On their basis, the sociologist must create a detailed descriptionlife world of the studied public. This method of sociological research allows you to get new ideas for research from theoretical data that were not previously taken into account.
The study problem determines which method of sociological research a scientist chooses, but if there is none, a new one can be created. Sociology is a young science that is still developing. Every year there are more and more new methods of studying society, which allow us to predict its further development and, as a result, prevent the inevitable.
