Behavioral Approach: Classical and Operational Conditioning

2024 Author: Miguel Ramacey | [email protected]. Last modified: 2023-12-17 06:11

The classical behavioral approach is one of the main directions in psychology, the method of which is the observation and experimental study of the body's reactions to external stimuli for further mathematical justification of the relationship between these variables. The development of behaviorism became a prerequisite for the formation of precise research methods in psychology, the transition from speculative conclusions to mathematically justified ones. The article describes: the behaviorist approach to the study of personality, the history of the development of this direction and its significance in the modern life of society. The latter is presented on the example of the use of behavioral principles in the development of political science.

Behavioral approach in psychology

Behaviorism in psychology arose on the basis of the methodology of the philosophy of positivism, which considers the goal of science to be the study of the directly observed. Hence, the subject of study of psychology should be human behavior that really exists, and not consciousness or the subconscious, which cannot be observed.

The term "behaviorism" comes from the English behavior and means"behavior". Thus, the purpose of studying this direction in psychology is behavior - its prerequisites, formation and the ability to control it. The actions and reactions of a person are the units of study of behaviorism, and the behavior itself is based on the well-known formula "stimulus - reaction".

The behaviorist approach of personality has become a body of knowledge based on experimental studies of animal behavior. Adherents of this direction in psychology have created their own methodological base, purpose, subject, methods of study, as well as methods of correcting behavior. Some theses of behaviorism have become the basis for other sciences, the purpose of which is to study the actions of people. But a particularly large contribution has been made in the theory and practice of teaching and raising children.

Representatives of behaviorism in psychology

The behavioral approach has a long history of developing and improving its scientific methods of research and therapy. Its representatives began with the study of the elementary principles of animal behavior and came to a system of practical application of this knowledge to humans.

The founder of classical behaviorism D. Watson was an adherent of the opinion that only what can be observed is real. He attached importance to the study of 4 acts of human behavior:

• visible reactions;
• hidden reactions (thinking);
• hereditary, natural reactions (like yawning);
• hidden natural reactions (internal life processes of the body).

He was convinced that the strength of the reaction depends on the strength of the stimulus, and proposed the formula S=R.

Watson's follower E. Thorndike developed the theory further and formulated the following basic laws of human behavior:

• exercises - the relationship between conditions and reactions to them depending on the number of reproduction;
• readiness - the conduction of nerve impulses depends on the presence of an internal readiness for this individual;
• associative shift - if an individual responds to one of the many stimuli, then the remaining ones will cause a similar reaction in the future;
• effect - if the action brings pleasure, then this behavior will occur more often.

Experimental confirmation of the theoretical foundations of this theory belongs to the Russian scientist I. Pavlov. It was he who experimentally proved that conditioned reflexes can be formed in animals if certain stimuli are used. Many people know his experiment with the formation of a conditioned response to light in the form of salivation in a dog without reinforcement in the form of food.

In the 60s, the development of behaviorism expanded. If earlier it was considered as a set of individual reactions to stimuli, then from now on the introduction of other variables into this scheme begins. So, E. Tolman, the author of cognitive behaviorism, called this intermediate mechanism cognitive representation. In his experiments with mice, he showed that animals find their way out of the maze on the way to food in different ways, followingalong a previously unfamiliar route. Thus, he demonstrated that the goal for the animal is more important than the mechanisms for achieving it.

Principles of behaviorism in psychology

Summarizing the conclusions reached by representatives of classical behaviorism, we can single out several principles of this approach:

• behavior is an individual's reaction to the stimuli of the external environment, with the help of which he adapts (the reaction can be both external and internal);
• personality is the experience acquired by a person in the process of life, a set of behaviors;
• human behavior is shaped by the social environment, not internal processes.

These principles are the theses of the classical approach, which were further developed and challenged by followers and critics.

Types of conditioning

Human development occurs through learning - mastering the experience of interaction with the outside world. These are mechanical skills, and social development, and emotional. Based on this experience, human behavior is also formed. The behavioral approach considers several types of learning, among which the most famous are operant and classical conditioning.

Operant refers to the gradual assimilation of experience by a person, in which any of his actions will entail a certain reaction. Thus, the child learns that throwing toys around can make the parents angry.

Classical conditioning tells the individual that one event is followed by the next. For example, at the sight of the mother's breast, the child understands that this act will be followed by the taste of milk. This is the formation of an association, the elements of which are one stimulus, followed by another.

Ratio of stimulus and response

Theoretically proposed by Watson and practically substantiated by Pavlov, the idea that the stimulus is equal to the response to it (S - R) was aimed at ridding psychology of "unscientific" ideas about the existence of a "spiritual, invisible" beginning in man. Research conducted on animals extended to the human mental life.

But the development of this theory has also changed the "stimulus-response" scheme. Thus, Thorndike noted that the expectation of reinforcement strengthens the connection between stimulus and response. Based on this, a person performs an action if he expects a positive result or avoids a negative consequence (positive and negative reinforcement).

E. Tolman also considered this scheme simplified and proposed his own: S - I - R, where between the stimulus and the response are the individual physiological characteristics of the individual, his personal experience, heredity.

Behavioral learning

Behaviorism has become the basis for the development of a behavioral approach in psychology. Although these directions are often identified, there is still a significant difference between them. The behaviorist approach considers personality as the result of learning, as a set of externally presented reactions, on the basis of which behavior is formed. In this way,in behaviorism, only those actions that appear outwardly make sense. The behavioral approach is broader. It includes the principles of classical behaviorism, a cognitive and personal approach, i.e. the internal actions of the body (thoughts, feelings, roles) that are created by the individual and for which she is responsible.

The behavioral approach has received many modifications, among which the most common is the social learning theory of A. Bandura and D. Rotter. Scientists have expanded the understanding of human behavior. They believed that the actions of a person are determined not only by external factors, but also by an internal predisposition.

A. Bandura noted that readiness, faith, expectations - as internal determinants - interact with reward and punishment, external factors equally. He was also sure that a person is able to independently change his behavior under the influence of the attitude of the world around him. But the main thing is that a person can form a new plan of action by simply observing the behavior of other people, even without their direct influence. According to the researcher, a person has a unique ability to self-regulate their behavior.

J. Rotter, developing this theory, proposed a system for predicting human behavior. According to the scientist, a person will act on the basis of 4 conditions: the potential of behavior (the degree of probability of behavior in response to some stimulus), expectations (the subject's assessment of the likelihood of reinforcement in response to his behavior), the value of reinforcement (assessments of personal significancereactions to actions) and the psychological situation (the external environment in which the action can take place). Thus, the potential for behavior depends on the combination of these three factors.

Hence, social learning is the assimilation of skills and patterns of behavior in the social world, which is determined by both external factors and the internal predisposition of the individual.

Behavioral approach in political science

The habitual legal method in political science, which studied legal and political institutions, was replaced by the behavioral one in the 50s. Its purpose was to study the nature of the political behavior of people as citizens and political groups. This method made it possible to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze political processes.

The behavioral approach in political science is used to study the behavior of an individual as part of a political system and the incentives that encourage him to act - motives, interests. Thanks to him, such concepts as "personality", "attitude", "beliefs", "public opinion", "electorate behavior" began to sound in political science.

Key messages

1. The focus should shift from political institutions to individual behavior within the framework of the life of the state.
2. Main creed: political science must also study the directly observable using rigorous empirical methods.
3. The dominant motive for participating in political activities is based onpsychological orientation.
4. The study of political life should seek to uncover the causal relationships that exist in society.

Representatives of behaviorism in political science

The founders of the behaviorist approach to politics are C. Merriam, G. Gosnell, G. Lasswell. They concluded that political science needed methods of "rational" control and social planning. Using Thurstone's idea of the connection between human behavior and attitudes, scientists have adapted it to political science and made it possible to move from the analysis of state institutions as the main object of study to the analysis of power, political behavior, public opinion and elections.

This idea was continued in the works of P. Lazersfeld, B. Barelson, A. Campbell, D. Stokes and others. They analyzed the electoral process in America, summarized the manifestations of the behavior of people in a democratic society, and came to several conclusions:

• participation of most citizens in elections is the exception rather than the rule;
• political interest depends on the level of education and income of a person;
• the average citizen is usually poorly informed about the political life of society;
• election results largely depend on group loy alty;
• political science should develop for the benefit of real human problems in times of crisis.

Thus, the development of the behavioral method in political science has made a real revolution and has become a prerequisite for the formation of an applied science of the political life of society.