Man is called the “crown of creation” for a reason. Humans are extremely complex. In addition to physiological functions, systems and organs, an integral part of any person is his soul, consciousness.
Those processes that occur in his mind and allow him to acquire new skills, knowledge, accumulate life experience, make various discoveries. Spiritual, moral and moral values, the ability to perceive beauty and create it are also integral components of human nature.
Although the human psyche and physiology are actually two facets of one whole, so-called conflicts are quite possible between them. Just questions related to the contradictions between the spiritual and the bodily are denoted by the term "psychophysical problem" in science.
What is this? Definition
This term refers to all existing or theoretically possible issues related to the relationship between the mental and physiological components of human nature.
According to the accepted definition,the psychophysical problem is the correlation of the spiritual with the material, consciousness and body. In other words, it is a balance between physical and mental processes, their mutual influence and the penetration of one into the other.
From the history of this issue
For the first time, people began to think about how the phenomena of the mental component of human nature correlate with physiological processes, even in ancient times. Of course, in those days the term "psychophysical" was not yet in use. The psychophysiological problem is an almost modern expression that arose at the turn of the century before last and the past. In the Middle Ages and in earlier time periods, other concepts were in use: the soul, the life of the body, and others.
For the first time, the theory of the division of all things into two main components - spiritual and bodily - arose in the 17th century. This problem was identified and, accordingly, the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes put forward the first theory.
According to his thoughts, the psychophysical problem is the violation of the ratio of two substances - bodily and spiritual. To the bodily scientist attributed the processes associated with:
- food;
- breath;
- moving in space;
- breeding.
Of course, other physiological phenomena were also classified as "corporal substance". Accordingly, all those processes that are related to the manifestation of will, consciousness, thought processes have moved to the spiritual component.
The essence of the theory of René Descartes
The French scientist believed thatmental phenomena are not directly related to physiology, and even more so cannot be its direct consequence. Based on this postulate, Descartes was looking for an explanation for the coexistence of these opposite components in human nature.
The scientist used the term "interaction", not "psychophysical problem". In modern psychology, Descartes' theory is considered one of the fundamental ones and belongs to the section of the parallelism of the coexistence of the components of human nature.
The interaction of mental and physical components of human nature is considered as follows:
- bodily affects the soul, resulting in the awakening of base passions, the desire for carnal pleasures and sensual pleasures in various variations;
- spiritual causes the body to work on itself, tame impulses, develop and improve.
In other words, the first scientific formulation of such a question as the “psychophysical problem” in philosophy considered the ratio of the substances that make up the nature of man rather as a continuous struggle, and not mutual addition of one to the other.
Who else de alt with this issue?
Descartes' teaching resonated among scientists, and, of course, he had his own adherents and followers. The most significant contribution to the development of this issue was made by:
- Thomas Hobbes.
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
- Benedict Spinoza.
Each of these scientists was not just engaged in the study or developmentthis philosophical question. They introduced something of their own into the concept of "psychophysical problem", far from always and not in everything corresponding to the direction indicated by Descartes.
About the theory of Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes, an Englishman, philosopher and materialist, believed that in reality only the bodily component of human nature is important, in other words, its physical side. The English scientist did not deny the existence of a spiritual particle in a person, but argued that it is only a continuation of the physiological processes occurring in the body.
Based on the fact that consciousness, thinking and other processes related to spiritual originate from the bodily and are their derivatives, and do not arise independently, the scientist came to the conclusion that they can be comprehended by observing the physiology of human nature.
The English scientist explained the essence of the theory as follows: since thinking is only a consequence of physical processes, it is subjective, in contrast to the bodily component. Physiological phenomena, bodily needs, processes occurring in the body, on the contrary, are objective. Accordingly, by studying them, one can comprehend and predict the development of subjective substances that are part of human nature.
On the theory of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
One of the most famous philosophers, logicians and mathematicians of Saxony was also not in full agreement with Rene Descartes. Also, Leibniz did not support the teachings of the English philosopher Hobbes.
According to the theory of the Saxon, the spiritual and physical principles havethe same value, and they are equal in degree of importance in the nature of man. Leibniz believed that the physical and spiritual components follow their own laws of development, harmoniously complementing one another.
As the scientist believed, the spiritual component of a person manifests itself under the influence of "final" reasons, for example, the need to achieve a goal. The bodily component is subject to objective, real reasons. These components do not directly affect one another, that is, a person's desire to eat, drink, or the need for breathing does not affect his spirituality in any way, and vice versa. Nevertheless, both hypostases of human nature are in a state of harmony, since they are parts of a single whole.
Leibniz gave priority not to the material, but to the spiritual component. That is, the scientist believed that in some cases the bodily principle follows the spiritual needs, and not vice versa.
On the theory of Benedict Spinoza
The psychophysical problem was considered by this scientist within the framework of the view of monism. In other words, Spinoza argued that there are no separate components in human nature. Human nature is one, although it has different manifestations, attributes or qualities.
In other words, the spirit and the body, according to the theory of this scientist, are just attributes of a single human nature. Accordingly, the more vital activity a person shows, the more perfect his nature becomes - both spiritual and physical.
The essence of the theory of thisa scientist can be summed up with a saying that in a he althy body there is always an equally strong and strong spirit. Spinoza believed that the higher the physical culture of a person, the more complex and organized his spirituality, thinking, consciousness.
What do modern scientists think?
Today the psychophysical problem is briefly reduced to consideration of interaction and oppositions:
- soul and body;
- mentality and sensuality.
Modern psychologists adhere to three main theoretical pillars that took shape in the century before last. The essence of these postulates is as follows:
- alienation from physicality;
- separation of emotionality and reason;
- representation of an organism as a mechanism, a machine.
Thus, modern scientists see the solution to the psychophysical problem in the same way as their predecessors who worked in the century before last, namely, in gaining complete control of the mind over the spirit and body.
In the century before last, the vast majority of scientists approached the resolution of issues related to the spiritual and physical components of human nature from the standpoint of reductionism. The same approach largely retains its relevance today.
What does the term "reductionism" mean?
What is "reductionism"? This is a set of methods and principles, which are based on the explanation of the essence of any complex processes with the help of patterns that characterize simple phenomena.
For example, every seemingly complex sociological processcan be broken down into components and explained using regularities characteristic of economic, biological or other phenomena. In other words, this method is based on the principle of reducing the complex to the simple, or the higher to the lower.
On reductionism in psychophysical issues in the last century
Similar options for solving a psychophysical problem arose in the century before last thanks to the work of such scientists:
- Ludwig Buchner.
- Karl Vogt.
- Jacob Moleschott.
They were all materialists. The combination of ideas and thoughts of these scientists received the name "physiological reductionism" in the scientific world. The essence of this direction was that the human brain, as an organ, emits a thought in the process of its functioning. This happens in the same way as bile is secreted in the liver or juice is secreted in the stomach. Thus, scientists believed that in order to explain mental phenomena, it is necessary to closely deal with the human brain as an organ.
The theory was very widespread, reaching its apogee in the 20s of the past century. At the beginning of the last century, it was customary to explain even extremely complex and intricate mental states by combinations of the simplest reflexes. As an example, it is quite possible to consider the famous "Pavlov's dog". IP Pavlov himself was also a supporter and follower of the ideas of physiological reductionism. In Russia, this method was relevant for the consideration of psychophysical problems until the middle of the last century.
In psychophysical questions, reductionism was picked up and adopted by scientists who adhere to the direction of behaviorism. Its essence lies in the denial of the existence of a spiritual component, and a person is seen as a “responsive to stimuli” organism.
About reductionism in psychophysical matters today
In the middle of the last century, the methodology of reductionism entered a state of deep crisis. In view of the fact that scientists adhering to this direction actually denied the possibility of the presence of complex mental processes occurring without direct dependence on the physiology of the brain, reductionism as a technique turned out to be untenable.
However, in the 21st century, this psychological direction is undergoing a rebirth. Of course, the methodology has undergone some changes and no longer contains categorical statements. However, its essence remains the same: the explanation of the complex through the knowledge of the simple.
The method itself is widely used in sociology and other sciences. Reductionism in sociology is a way of viewing the individual through the prism of social relations. Cybernetic reductionism is a way of considering psychophysical processes as a consequence of the analysis and processing of information. That is, the nature of man in this theory seems to be similar to the structure of a computer.
How are psychophysical issues resolved in practice?
In the modern world, the most acute problem is the psychophysical development of children. This concept includes:
- physicaldevelopment, state of the body;
- nuances of the mental formation of personality.
The task of parents and teachers is to maintain these parameters in a stable balance, harmony. Deviations or violations in the development of one of them inevitably entails problems in the other. That is, a physically undeveloped child will also experience difficulties in mental activity - he will get tired, remember information poorly, show an inability to assimilate educational material.
The psychophysical state of children is assessed, in accordance with the standards, through various tests, the complexity of which depends on which age group they are intended for. The classification of various deviations in psychophysical development is very extensive. For example, this concept includes both oligophrenia and hearing loss or visual acuity.
When a psychophysical problem is identified in a child, it is corrected or solved in accordance with its complexity. For example, special developing or teaching methods are used. Psychologists usually deal with similar problems that arise in adults.
